Liberalism in the 19th-century context primarily advocated for constitutional government, individual rights (like freedom of speech), and economic freedom for the middle class.

Nationalism is the belief that a group of people with a shared language, culture, and history should have their own independent nation-state.

In 1848, these two ideologies were often allied, as liberals sought to create constitutional nation-states.

This alliance was evident in the German and Italian states, where liberals were the main proponents of national unification.

However, in multi-ethnic empires like Austria, the two ideologies often came into conflict.

The nationalism of one group (e.g., the Hungarians) clashed with the nationalist aspirations of other groups within the same state (e.g., the Croats).

Conservative rulers, like the Habsburgs, successfully exploited these nationalist rivalries to divide and conquer the revolutionary movements.

The revolutions highlighted the difference between 'unifying' nationalism (in Germany and Italy) and 'divisive' nationalism (in the Austrian Empire).

The events of 1848 marked the first time that both liberalism and nationalism appeared as mass movements on a European scale.

Ultimately, the internal conflicts between and within these ideologies contributed to the revolutions' failure.